[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"minerals:one:1740":3},{"id":4,"longid":5,"guid":6,"name":7,"shortcode_ima":8,"entrytype":9,"entrytype_text":10,"varietyof":11,"synid":11,"polytypeof":11,"groupid":11,"weighting":12,"nolocadd":13,"blacklisted":13,"mindat_formula":14,"mindat_formula_note":11,"ima_formula":14,"elements":15,"sigelements":16,"key_elements":11,"impurities":11,"cim":17,"ima_status":18,"ima_notes":11,"ima_history":11,"approval_year":11,"publication_year":11,"discovery_year":11,"strunz10ed1":21,"strunz10ed2":14,"strunz10ed3":22,"strunz10ed4":23,"dana8ed1":21,"dana8ed2":24,"dana8ed3":25,"dana8ed4":26,"csystem":27,"cclass":28,"spacegroup":29,"spacegroupset":30,"a":31,"b":30,"c":32,"alpha":30,"beta":30,"gamma":30,"aerror":11,"berror":11,"cerror":11,"alphaerror":11,"betaerror":11,"gammaerror":11,"va3":11,"z":11,"csmetamict":13,"commentcrystal":11,"twinning":33,"tranglide":11,"parting":11,"epitaxidescription":11,"morphology":34,"tlform":11,"hmin":35,"hmax":36,"hardtype":11,"vhnmin":37,"vhnmax":38,"vhnerror":11,"vhng":39,"vhns":11,"commenthard":11,"dmeas":40,"dmeas2":41,"dcalc":42,"dmeaserror":11,"dcalcerror":11,"commentdense":11,"lustre":43,"lustretype":44,"commentluster":11,"diapheny":45,"streak":46,"colour":47,"commentcolor":11,"colors":48,"streak_colors":51,"luminescence":52,"uv":11,"cleavage":53,"cleavagetype":54,"fracturetype":55,"tenacity":56,"commentbreak":11,"opticaltype":57,"opticalsign":58,"opticalalpha":30,"opticalalpha2":30,"opticalalphaerror":11,"opticalbeta":30,"opticalbeta2":30,"opticalbetaerror":11,"opticalgamma":30,"opticalgamma2":30,"opticalgammaerror":11,"opticalomega":59,"opticalomega2":60,"opticalomegaerror":11,"opticalepsilon":30,"opticalepsilon2":30,"opticalepsilonerror":11,"opticaln":30,"opticaln2":30,"opticalnerror":11,"optical2vcalc":30,"optical2vcalc2":30,"optical2vcalcerror":11,"optical2vmeasured":30,"optical2vmeasured2":30,"optical2vmeasurederror":11,"rimin":61,"rimax":62,"opticaldispersion":11,"opticalpleochroism":63,"opticalpleochorismdesc":11,"opticalbirefringence":64,"opticalcomments":65,"opticalcolour":66,"opticalinternal":11,"opticaltropic":11,"opticalanisotropism":64,"opticalbireflectance":11,"opticalextinction":11,"opticalr":11,"specdispm":11,"ir":11,"electrical":11,"magnetism":11,"thermalbehaviour":11,"other":67,"industrial":11,"occurrence":11,"otheroccurrence":11,"type_specimen_store":11,"description_short":68,"aboutname":69,"rock_parent":11,"rock_parent2":11,"rock_root":9,"rock_bgs_code":11,"meteoritical_code":11,"updttime":70,"reviewed_at":11,"variety_of":11,"varieties":71,"group_members":75,"associates":76,"confused_with":104,"type_localities":127,"occurrence_total":128,"citations":129,"images":365,"structures":511,"synonyms":537,"language_names":551,"wikidata_qid":960,"texts":961},1740,"1:1:1740:0","72a67a25-ed75-4843-882c-6accdc24f248","Graphite","Gr",0,"mineral",null,13692,false,"C",[14],[14],"1.25",[19,20],"APPROVED","GRANDFATHERED","1","B","05a","3","6","2","Hexagonal",18,114,"0","2.461","6.708","\u003Cmi>{11_21}\u003C\u002Fmi>","Hexagonal platy crystals, often bent.",1,2,"7","11",10,"2.09","2.23","2.26","Sub-metallic to earthy","Sub-Metallic","Opaque","Black to steel gray","Iron black to steel-grey",[49,50],"black","gray",[49,50],"None","{0001}","Perfect","Micaceous","flexible","Uniaxial","-","1.93","2.07",1.93,2.07,"Strong","Extreme","Deep blue in transmitted light.","Iron black to steel gray","Greasy feel","Graphite usually occurs in flakes in metamorphosed rocks rich in carbon, but it can also be found in veins and in pegmatites. Where large deposits are found, it is mined and used as an industrial lubricant and for 'lead' in pencils. The crystallinity d...","Named \"plumbago\" in 1739 by Magnus von Bromell, but in a different sense than previous authors such as Agricola and Conrad Gesner. Also called \"molybdaena\", but \"molybdaena\" was shown to represent two species, \u003CM>molybdenite\u003C\u002FM> and \u003CM>graphite\u003C\u002FM> - as known today, in 1781 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele. Named graphite in 1789 by Abraham Gottlob Werner from the Greek \"graphein\", \"to write\".","2025-08-11 12:14:20",[72],{"id":73,"name":74,"entrytype":36,"csystem":11,"ima_formula":11,"mindat_formula":14,"hmin":35,"hmax":35,"dmeas":30,"dcalc":30,"primary_image_id":11},11340,"Cliftonite",[],[77,86,95],{"id":78,"name":79,"entrytype":9,"csystem":80,"ima_formula":81,"mindat_formula":81,"hmin":82,"hmax":82,"dmeas":83,"dcalc":84,"primary_image_id":85},2217,"Kirschsteinite","Orthorhombic","CaFe\u003Csup>2+\u003C\u002Fsup>(SiO\u003Csub>4\u003C\u002Fsub>)",5.5,"3.434","3.596",13376,{"id":87,"name":88,"entrytype":9,"csystem":80,"ima_formula":89,"mindat_formula":89,"hmin":90,"hmax":91,"dmeas":92,"dcalc":93,"primary_image_id":94},2925,"Norbergite","Mg\u003Csub>3\u003C\u002Fsub>(SiO\u003Csub>4\u003C\u002Fsub>)F\u003Csub>2\u003C\u002Fsub>",6,6.5,"3.177","3.186",70930,{"id":96,"name":97,"entrytype":9,"csystem":27,"ima_formula":98,"mindat_formula":98,"hmin":99,"hmax":100,"dmeas":101,"dcalc":102,"primary_image_id":103},4029,"Troilite","FeS",3.5,4.5,"4.67","4.85",24586,[105,109,116,124],{"id":106,"name":107,"entrytype":9,"csystem":27,"ima_formula":14,"mindat_formula":14,"hmin":35,"hmax":36,"dmeas":30,"dcalc":108,"primary_image_id":11},1207,"Chaoite","3.43",{"id":110,"name":111,"entrytype":9,"csystem":112,"ima_formula":14,"mindat_formula":14,"hmin":39,"hmax":39,"dmeas":113,"dcalc":114,"primary_image_id":115},1282,"Diamond","Isometric","3.5","3.515",52311,{"id":117,"name":118,"entrytype":9,"csystem":27,"ima_formula":14,"mindat_formula":14,"hmin":119,"hmax":120,"dmeas":121,"dcalc":122,"primary_image_id":123},2431,"Lonsdaleite",7,8,"3.2","3.51",14703,{"id":125,"name":126,"entrytype":9,"csystem":112,"ima_formula":14,"mindat_formula":14,"hmin":11,"hmax":11,"dmeas":11,"dcalc":11,"primary_image_id":11},470679,"Tartarosite",[],2923,[130,134,138,142,146,150,154,158,162,166,169,173,177,180,184,188,191,195,199,203,208,212,215,218,221,224,228,232,236,240,244,248,252,256,259,263,266,270,273,277,281,285,289,292,296,301,305,309,313,317,322,327,331,335,339,344,348,353,357,361],{"id":131,"year":132,"html":133,"doi":11},16110786,1907,"Cirkel, F. (1907) Graphite: its properties, occurrence, refining and uses: Department of Mines, Mines Branch, Ottawa, Canada, 307pp.",{"id":135,"year":136,"html":137,"doi":11},16110787,1917,"Alling, H.L. (1917) The Adirondack graphite deposits, New York State Museum Bulletin 199: 7-150.",{"id":139,"year":140,"html":141,"doi":11},16110788,1920,"Spence, H.S. (1920) Graphite Mines, Branch Report No. 511: Canada Department of Mines, Ottawa: 202pp. + photos.",{"id":143,"year":144,"html":145,"doi":11},16110789,1934,"Wesselowski, Wassiliew (1934) Zeitschrift für Kristallographie: 89: 494.",{"id":147,"year":148,"html":149,"doi":11},521202,1941,"Palache, Charles (1941) Contributions to the mineralogy of Sterling Hill, New Jersey: Morphology of graphite, arsenopyrite, pyrite and arsenic. \u003Ci>American Mineralogist\u003C\u002Fi>,  26 (12) 709-717 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='http:\u002F\u002Fwww.minsocam.org\u002Fammin\u002FAM26\u002FAM26_709.pdf' class='refpdflink'>\u003C\u002Fa>",{"id":151,"year":152,"html":153,"doi":11},1118651,1944,"Palache, Charles, Berman, Harry, Frondel, Clifford (1944) \u003Ci>The System of Mineralogy\u003C\u002Fi> (7th ed.) Vol. 1 - Elements, Sulfides, Sulfosalts, Oxides. John Wiley and Sons, New York.",{"id":155,"year":156,"html":157,"doi":11},16110793,1960,"Cameron, E.N. and Weis, P.L. (1960) Strategic graphite - a survey. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1082-E: 201-321.",{"id":159,"year":160,"html":161,"doi":11},16110794,1968,"Taylor, R., Gilchris, K., and Poston, L.J. (1968) Thermal conductivity of polycrystalline graphite. Carbon: 6: 537-544.",{"id":163,"year":164,"html":165,"doi":11},16110795,1980,"Kwiecinska, B. (1980) Mineralogy of Natural Graphites: Zaklad Narodowy imienia Ossolinskich. Polska Akademia Nauk: 67: Jun-87.",{"id":167,"year":164,"html":168,"doi":11},16110796,"Weis, P.L. (1980) Graphite skeleton crystals - A newly recognized morphology of crystalline carbon in metasedimentary rocks. Geology: 8: 296-297.",{"id":170,"year":171,"html":172,"doi":11},16110797,1981,"Shafranovskii, G.I. (1981) New graphite twins: Zapiski Vsesoyuznogo. Mineralogicheskogo Obschestva: 110(6): 716-720.",{"id":174,"year":175,"html":176,"doi":11},16110798,1982,"Shafranovskii, G.I. (1982) Crystallomorphology of graphite from the Ilmen Mountains; Mineralogical Research of Endogenic Deposits of the Urals: Academy Nauk CCCP- Uralskii Nauchnuri Tsentr: 44-53.",{"id":178,"year":175,"html":179,"doi":11},16110799,"Shafranovskii, G.I. (1982) Graphite [growth] twins and triads: Mineralogicheskii Zhurnal: 4(1): 74-81.",{"id":181,"year":182,"html":183,"doi":11},16110800,1983,"Shafranovskii, G.I. (1983) Classical and non-classical twinning in graphite: Zapiski Vsesoyuznogo Mineralogicheskogo Obschestva: 112(5): 577-581.",{"id":185,"year":186,"html":187,"doi":11},16110801,1984,"Gohla, K.-H. (1984) Graphit aus Kropfmuhl: Magma: 4: 26-51.",{"id":189,"year":186,"html":190,"doi":11},16110803,"Weinelt, W. (1984) Die Geologie der Graphit- Lagerstatte Kropfmuhl. Magma: 4: 52-56.",{"id":192,"year":186,"html":193,"doi":194},2880007,"Jedwab, Jacques, Boulègue, Jacques (1984) Graphite crystals in hydrothermal vents. \u003Ci>Nature\u003C\u002Fi>, 310 (5972). 41-43 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1038\u002F310041a0'>doi:10.1038\u002F310041a0\u003C\u002Fa>","10.1038\u002F310041a0",{"id":196,"year":197,"html":198,"doi":11},17159631,1987,"Weiner, Karl-Ludwig, Hager, Harald (1987) Wachstumsspiralen auf Graphit-Kristallen [Growth spirals on graphite crystals]. \u003Ci>Lapis\u003C\u002Fi>,  12 (1) 31-33",{"id":200,"year":201,"html":202,"doi":11},16110805,1988,"Rumble, D. and Chamberlain, C.P. (1988) Graphite vein deposits of New Hampshire. New England Intercollegiate Geologic Conference Guidebook: 241-255.",{"id":204,"year":205,"html":206,"doi":207},2926782,1989,"Pearson, D. G., Davies, G. R., Nixon, P. H., Milledge, H. J. (1989) Graphitized diamonds from a peridotite massif in Morocco and implications for anomalous diamond occurrences. \u003Ci>Nature\u003C\u002Fi>, 338 (6210). 60-62 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1038\u002F338060a0'>doi:10.1038\u002F338060a0\u003C\u002Fa>","10.1038\u002F338060a0",{"id":209,"year":210,"html":211,"doi":11},12908521,1991,"Jaszczak, John A. (1991) Graphite From Crestmore, California. \u003Ci>The Mineralogical Record\u003C\u002Fi>, 22 (6) 427-432",{"id":213,"year":210,"html":214,"doi":11},16110807,"Bernatowicz, T.J., Amari, S., Zinner, E.K., and Lewis, R.S. (1991) Interstellar grains within interstellar grains. Astrophysical Journal: 373: L73-L76.",{"id":216,"year":210,"html":217,"doi":11},16110809,"Kvasnitsa, V.N. and Yatsenko, V.G. (1991) Spherical graphite from the Azov Sea region. Mineralogicheskii Zhurnal: 13(1): 95-101.",{"id":219,"year":210,"html":220,"doi":11},16110810,"Lemanski, Chester S. Jr. (1991) Graphite in ore. The Picking Table: 32(1): 13-Nov, 1991.",{"id":222,"year":210,"html":223,"doi":11},16110811,"Tsuchiya, N., Suzuki, S., and Chida, T. (1991) Origin of graphite in the Oshirabetsu gabbroic body, Hokkaido Japan. Journal of Mineralogy, Petrology, and Economic Geology; Japanese Association of Mineralogists, Petrologists and Economic Geologists, Tohoku University, Sendai 980, Japan: 86(6): 264-272.",{"id":225,"year":226,"html":227,"doi":11},16110812,1992,"Kvasnitsa, V.N. and Yatsenko, V.G. (1992) Mechanisms of natural graphite crystals growth in the Ukraine. Doklady Academii Nauk: 4: 73-76.",{"id":229,"year":230,"html":231,"doi":11},16110814,1994,"Jaszczak, J.A. (1994) Famous graphite crystals from Sterling Hill, New Jersey. The Picking Table: 35(2).",{"id":233,"year":230,"html":234,"doi":235},155935,"Dissanayake, C. B. (1994) Origin of vein graphite in high-grade metamorphic terrains. \u003Ci>Mineralium Deposita\u003C\u002Fi>,  29 (1) 57-67 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1007\u002Fbf03326396'>doi:10.1007\u002Fbf03326396\u003C\u002Fa>","10.1007\u002Fbf03326396",{"id":237,"year":238,"html":239,"doi":11},16110816,1995,"Tyler, I. (1995) Seathwaite Wad and the Mines of the Borrowdale Valley \"Blue Rock Publications, Carlisle, England\": 220.",{"id":241,"year":238,"html":242,"doi":243},2664,"Semenenko, V. P., Girich, A. L. (1995) Mineralogy of a unique graphite-containing fragment in the Krymka chondrite (LL3) \u003Ci>Mineralogical Magazine\u003C\u002Fi>,  59 (396) 443-454 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1180\u002Fminmag.1995.059.396.06'>doi:10.1180\u002Fminmag.1995.059.396.06\u003C\u002Fa> \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Frruff.info\u002Fdoclib\u002FMinMag\u002FVolume_59\u002F59-396-443.pdf' class='refpdflink'>\u003C\u002Fa>","10.1180\u002Fminmag.1995.059.396.06",{"id":245,"year":246,"html":247,"doi":11},16110818,1997,"Kvasnitsa, V.N. and Yatsenko, V.G. (1997) Growth spirals on graphite crystals from Ukraine. Mineralogicheskii Zhurnal: 19(6): 43-48.",{"id":249,"year":246,"html":250,"doi":251},29824,"Jaszczak, John A. (1997) Unusual Graphite Crystals: From the Lime Crest Quarry, Sparta, New Jersey. \u003Ci>Rocks & Minerals\u003C\u002Fi>,  72 (5) 330-334 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1080\u002F00357529709605060'>doi:10.1080\u002F00357529709605060\u003C\u002Fa>","10.1080\u002F00357529709605060",{"id":253,"year":254,"html":255,"doi":11},15946601,1998,"Jaszczak, John A. (1998), Unusual graphite crystals from the Lime Crest quarry, Sparta, New Jersey: The Picking Table: 39(1): 20-24.",{"id":257,"year":254,"html":258,"doi":11},16110820,"Kvasnitsa, V.N., Yatsenko, V.G., and Zagnitko, V.M. (1998) Varieties of Graphite Spherulites from Deposits and Ore Occurrences of Ukraine. Mineralogicheskii Zhurnal, Akademiya Nauk Ukrainy, Kiev, Ukraine: 20(2): 34-39.",{"id":260,"year":261,"html":262,"doi":11},16110821,1999,"Hanna, G.A. and Jaszczak, J.A. (1999) A new find of spherical graphite from Sterling Hill, New Jersey. The Picking Table: 40: 27-30.",{"id":264,"year":261,"html":265,"doi":11},16110822,"Kvasnitsa, V.N., Yatsenko, V.G., and Jaszczak, J.A.(1999) Disclinations in unusual graphite crystals from anorthosites of Ukraine. The Canadian Mineralogist: 37(4): 951-960.",{"id":267,"year":268,"html":269,"doi":11},16110823,2000,"Jaszczak, J.A. (2000) Palache's \"Contributions to the mineralogy of Sterling Hill, New Jersey\": The 900-foot level revisited. Matrix, A Journal of the History of Minerals: 8(3): 137-149.",{"id":271,"year":268,"html":272,"doi":11},16110824,"Jaszczak, J.A. and Robinson, G.W. (2000) Spherical and triskelial graphite from Gooderham, Ontario, Canada. Rocks & Minerals: 75(3): 172-173.",{"id":274,"year":268,"html":275,"doi":276},291307,"Satish-Kumar, M, Wada, Hideki (2000) Carbon isotopic equilibrium between calcite and graphite in Skallen Marbles, East Antarctica: evidence for the preservation of peak metamorphic temperatures. \u003Ci>Chemical Geology\u003C\u002Fi>,  166 (1) 173-182 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fs0009-2541(99)00189-8'>doi:10.1016\u002Fs0009-2541(99)00189-8\u003C\u002Fa>","10.1016\u002Fs0009-2541(99)00189-8",{"id":278,"year":279,"html":280,"doi":11},16110827,2001,"Jaszczak, J.A. (2001) Palache's \"Contributions to the Mineralogy of Sterling Hill, New Jersey\", The 900-foot level revisited. The Picking Table: 42(1).",{"id":282,"year":279,"html":283,"doi":284},394409,"Goresy, Ahmed El, Gillet, Philippe, Chen, Ming, Künstler, Friedel, Graup, Günther, Stähle, Volker (2001) In situ discovery of shock-induced graphite-diamond phase transition in gneisses from the Ries Crater, Germany. \u003Ci>American Mineralogist\u003C\u002Fi>,  86 (5) 611-621 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.2138\u002Fam-2001-5-603'>doi:10.2138\u002Fam-2001-5-603\u003C\u002Fa>","10.2138\u002Fam-2001-5-603",{"id":286,"year":287,"html":288,"doi":11},16110828,2002,"Jaszczak, J.A., Rakovan, J. (2002) Growth spirals on graphite crystals from the Trotter Mine dump, Franklin, New Jersey. The Picking Table: 43(2).",{"id":290,"year":287,"html":291,"doi":11},16110829,"Rakovan, J. and Jaszczak, J.A.(2002) Multiple length scale growth spirals on metamorphic graphite {001} surfaces studied by atomic force microscopy. American Mineralogist: 87: 17-24.",{"id":293,"year":287,"html":294,"doi":295},160371,"Beyssac, O., Goffé, B., Chopin, C., Rouzaud, J. N. (2002) Raman spectra of carbonaceous material in metasediments: a new geothermometer. \u003Ci>Journal of Metamorphic Geology\u003C\u002Fi>,  20 (9) 859-871 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1046\u002Fj.1525-1314.2002.00408.x'>doi:10.1046\u002Fj.1525-1314.2002.00408.x\u003C\u002Fa>","10.1046\u002Fj.1525-1314.2002.00408.x",{"id":297,"year":298,"html":299,"doi":300},4256083,2003,"Jaszczak, John A., Robinson, George W., Dimovski, Svetlana, Gogotsi, Yury (2003) Naturally occurring graphite cones. \u003Ci>Carbon\u003C\u002Fi>, 41. 2085-2092 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fs0008-6223(03)00214-8'>doi:10.1016\u002Fs0008-6223(03)00214-8\u003C\u002Fa>","10.1016\u002Fs0008-6223(03)00214-8",{"id":302,"year":298,"html":303,"doi":304},394731,"Santosh, M., Wada, H., Satish-Kumar, M., Binu-Lal, S.S. (2003) Carbon isotope “stratigraphy” in a single graphite crystal: Implications for the crystal growth mechanism of fluid-deposited graphite. \u003Ci>American Mineralogist\u003C\u002Fi>,  88 (11) 1689-1696 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.2138\u002Fam-2003-11-1208'>doi:10.2138\u002Fam-2003-11-1208\u003C\u002Fa>","10.2138\u002Fam-2003-11-1208",{"id":306,"year":307,"html":308,"doi":11},16110832,2004,"Stadermann, F.J., Croat, T.K., and Bernatowicz, T. (2004) NanoSIMS Determination of Carbon and Oxygen Isotopic Compositions of Presolar Graphites from the Murchison Meteorite. 35th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, March 15-19, League City, Texas, abstract no.1758.",{"id":310,"year":311,"html":312,"doi":11},16964646,2005,"(2005) Graphite. \u003Ci>Handbook of Mineralogy\u003C\u002Fi>. Mineralogical Society of America \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fwww.handbookofmineralogy.org\u002Fpdfs\u002Fgraphite.pdf' class='refpdflink'>\u003C\u002Fa>",{"id":314,"year":311,"html":315,"doi":316},379723,"RAHL, J, ANDERSON, K, BRANDON, M, FASSOULAS, C (2005) Raman spectroscopic carbonaceous material thermometry of low-grade metamorphic rocks: Calibration and application to tectonic exhumation in Crete, Greece. \u003Ci>Earth and Planetary Science Letters\u003C\u002Fi>,  240 (2) 339-354 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fj.epsl.2005.09.055'>doi:10.1016\u002Fj.epsl.2005.09.055\u003C\u002Fa>","10.1016\u002Fj.epsl.2005.09.055",{"id":318,"year":319,"html":320,"doi":321},64826,2010,"Touzain, P., Balasooriya, N., Bandaranayake, K., Descolas-Gros, C. (2010) Vein graphite from the Bogala and Kahatagaha-Kolongoha Mines, Sri Lanka: a possible origin. \u003Ci>The Canadian Mineralogist\u003C\u002Fi>,  48 (6) 1373-1384 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.3749\u002Fcanmin.48.5.1373'>doi:10.3749\u002Fcanmin.48.5.1373\u003C\u002Fa>","10.3749\u002Fcanmin.48.5.1373",{"id":323,"year":324,"html":325,"doi":326},3714090,2014,"Kouketsu, Yui, Mizukami, Tomoyuki, Mori, Hiroshi, Endo, Shunsuke, Aoya, Mutsuki, Hara, Hidetoshi, Nakamura, Daisuke, Wallis, Simon (2014) A new approach to develop the Raman carbonaceous material geothermometer for low-grade metamorphism using peak width. \u003Ci>Island Arc\u003C\u002Fi>, 23 (1). 33-50 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1111\u002Fiar.12057'>doi:10.1111\u002Fiar.12057\u003C\u002Fa>","10.1111\u002Fiar.12057",{"id":328,"year":324,"html":329,"doi":330},409037,"Beyssac, O., Rumble, D. (2014) Graphitic Carbon: A Ubiquitous, Diverse, and Useful Geomaterial. \u003Ci>Elements\u003C\u002Fi>,  10 (6) 415-420 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.2113\u002Fgselements.10.6.415'>doi:10.2113\u002Fgselements.10.6.415\u003C\u002Fa>","10.2113\u002Fgselements.10.6.415",{"id":332,"year":324,"html":333,"doi":334},409039,"Buseck, P. R., Beyssac, O. (2014) From Organic Matter to Graphite: Graphitization. \u003Ci>Elements\u003C\u002Fi>,  10 (6) 421-426 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.2113\u002Fgselements.10.6.421'>doi:10.2113\u002Fgselements.10.6.421\u003C\u002Fa>","10.2113\u002Fgselements.10.6.421",{"id":336,"year":324,"html":337,"doi":338},409041,"Bernard, S., Papineau, D. (2014) Graphitic Carbons and Biosignatures. \u003Ci>Elements\u003C\u002Fi>,  10 (6) 435-440 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.2113\u002Fgselements.10.6.435'>doi:10.2113\u002Fgselements.10.6.435\u003C\u002Fa>","10.2113\u002Fgselements.10.6.435",{"id":340,"year":341,"html":342,"doi":343},999835,2016,"Rantitsch, Gerd, Lämmerer, Wolfgang, Fisslthaler, Evelin, Mitsche, Stefan, Kaltenböck, Heidi (2016) On the discrimination of semi-graphite and graphite by Raman spectroscopy. \u003Ci>International Journal of Coal Geology\u003C\u002Fi>,  159. 48-56 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fj.coal.2016.04.001'>doi:10.1016\u002Fj.coal.2016.04.001\u003C\u002Fa>","10.1016\u002Fj.coal.2016.04.001",{"id":345,"year":341,"html":346,"doi":347},999944,"Rantitsch, Gerd, Lämmerer, Wolfgang, Fisslthaler, Evelin, Mitsche, Stefan, Kaltenböck, Heidi (2016) Erratum to: “On the discrimination of semi-graphite and graphite by Raman spectroscopy”. \u003Ci>International Journal of Coal Geology\u003C\u002Fi>,  167. 238 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fj.coal.2016.09.010'>doi:10.1016\u002Fj.coal.2016.09.010\u003C\u002Fa>","10.1016\u002Fj.coal.2016.09.010",{"id":349,"year":350,"html":351,"doi":352},159135,2019,"Beyssac, Oliver, Pattison, David R. M., Bourdelle, Franck (2019) Contrasting degrees of recrystallization of carbonaceous material in the Nelson aureole, British Columbia and Ballachulish aureole, Scotland, with implications for thermometry based on Raman spectroscopy of carbonaceous material. \u003Ci>Journal of Metamorphic Geology\u003C\u002Fi>,  37 (1) 71-95 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1111\u002Fjmg.12449'>doi:10.1111\u002Fjmg.12449\u003C\u002Fa>","10.1111\u002Fjmg.12449",{"id":354,"year":350,"html":355,"doi":356},1000958,"Henry, D.G., Jarvis, I., Gillmore, G., Stephenson, M. (2019) A rapid method for determining organic matter maturity using Raman spectroscopy: Application to Carboniferous organic-rich mudstones and coals. \u003Ci>International Journal of Coal Geology\u003C\u002Fi>,  203. 87-98 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fj.coal.2019.01.003'>doi:10.1016\u002Fj.coal.2019.01.003\u003C\u002Fa>","10.1016\u002Fj.coal.2019.01.003",{"id":358,"year":350,"html":359,"doi":360},7735778,"Korsakov, Andrey, Rezvukhina, Olga, Jaszczak, John, Rezvukhin, Dmitriy, Mikhailenko, Denis (2019) Natural Graphite Cuboids. \u003Ci>Minerals\u003C\u002Fi>, 9 (2) 110 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.3390\u002Fmin9020110'>doi:10.3390\u002Fmin9020110\u003C\u002Fa> \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fwww.mdpi.com\u002F2075-163X\u002F9\u002F2\u002F110\u002Fpdf?version=1550222374' class='refpdflink'>\u003C\u002Fa>","10.3390\u002Fmin9020110",{"id":362,"year":350,"html":363,"doi":364},540861,"Henry, Delano G., Jarvis, Ian, Gillmore, Gavin, Stephenson, Michael (2019) Raman spectroscopy as a tool to determine the thermal maturity of organic matter: Application to sedimentary, metamorphic and structural geology. \u003Ci>Earth-Science Reviews\u003C\u002Fi>,  198. 102936 \u003Ca target='_blank' href='https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fj.earscirev.2019.102936'>doi:10.1016\u002Fj.earscirev.2019.102936\u003C\u002Fa>","10.1016\u002Fj.earscirev.2019.102936",[366,373,383,387,392,401,411,421,429,435,443,451,460,468,475,480,487,496,503],{"id":367,"source_url":368,"license_code":369,"credit_html":370,"title":7,"description":11,"author":11,"original_width":371,"original_height":372},29804,"https:\u002F\u002Fgeocollections.info\u002Ffile\u002F127764","CC BY-SA 4.0","Photo: Unknown author — http:\u002F\u002Fcreativecommons.org\u002Flicenses\u002Fby-sa\u002F4.0\u002F, courtesy of \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fgeocollections.info\u002Ffile\u002F127764\" rel=\"noopener\">University of Tartu, Natural History Museum\u003C\u002Fa> via Europeana",1000,889,{"id":374,"source_url":375,"license_code":376,"credit_html":377,"title":378,"description":379,"author":380,"original_width":381,"original_height":382},10355,"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=10164225","CC BY-SA 3.0","Robert M. Lavinsky, via \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=10164225\" rel=\"noopener\">Wikimedia Commons\u003C\u002Fa>","Graphite-233436.jpg","\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FGraphite\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"en:Graphite\">Graphite\u003C\u002Fa>\n\u003Cdl>\u003Cdd>\u003Cdl>\u003Cdd>Locality: Old Beneis Farm, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FMarlborough\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"en:Marlborough\">Marlborough\u003C\u002Fa>, Cheshire County, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FNew_Hampshire\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"en:New Hampshire\">New Hampshire\u003C\u002Fa>, USA (\u003Ca rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.mindat.org\u002Floc-206274.html\">Locality at mindat.org\u003C\u002Fa>)\u003C\u002Fdd>\n\u003Cdd>Size: 5.6 x 3.8 x 1.8 cm.\u003C\u002Fdd>\n\u003Cdd>A large, solid mass of elemental carbon or graphite with the super, greasy\u002Fwaxy feel and typical, sheet-like form. This splendent, steel-gray specimen is from a very uncommon New Hampshire locality - the old Beneis Farm, Marlborough, Cheshire County. Ex. Bob Whitmore Collection, a noted New England collector and field collector.\u003C\u002Fdd>\u003C\u002Fdl>\u003C\u002Fdd>\u003C\u002Fdl>","Robert M. Lavinsky",585,750,{"id":384,"source_url":385,"license_code":369,"credit_html":386,"title":7,"description":11,"author":11,"original_width":371,"original_height":382},29806,"https:\u002F\u002Fgeocollections.info\u002Ffile\u002F61931","Photo: Unknown author — http:\u002F\u002Fcreativecommons.org\u002Flicenses\u002Fby-sa\u002F4.0\u002F, courtesy of \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fgeocollections.info\u002Ffile\u002F61931\" rel=\"noopener\">The Estonian Museum of Natural History\u003C\u002Fa> via Europeana",{"id":388,"source_url":389,"license_code":369,"credit_html":390,"title":7,"description":11,"author":11,"original_width":391,"original_height":371},29807,"https:\u002F\u002Fgeocollections.info\u002Ffile\u002F61895","Photo: Unknown author — http:\u002F\u002Fcreativecommons.org\u002Flicenses\u002Fby-sa\u002F4.0\u002F, courtesy of \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fgeocollections.info\u002Ffile\u002F61895\" rel=\"noopener\">The Estonian Museum of Natural History\u003C\u002Fa> via Europeana",666,{"id":393,"source_url":394,"license_code":369,"credit_html":395,"title":396,"description":397,"author":398,"original_width":399,"original_height":400},10358,"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=100162783","Zbynek Burival, via \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=100162783\" rel=\"noopener\">Wikimedia Commons\u003C\u002Fa>","Graphite from Velke Tresne, Czech Republic.jpg","Pure graphite specimen from abandoned graphite mines near Velké Tresné, Czech Republic. Size 11 x 6.5 cm.","Zbynek Burival",3989,2992,{"id":402,"source_url":403,"license_code":404,"credit_html":405,"title":406,"description":407,"author":408,"original_width":409,"original_height":410},57334,"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=139528560","CC BY 2.0","James St. John, via \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=139528560\" rel=\"noopener\">Wikimedia Commons\u003C\u002Fa>","Graphite (Ceylon) 36.jpg","Graphite from Ceylon (Sri Lanka).\n\u003Cp>A mineral is a naturally-occurring, solid, inorganic, crystalline substance having a fairly definite chemical composition and having fairly definite physical properties.  At its simplest, a mineral is a naturally-occurring solid chemical.  Currently, there are over 5900 named and described minerals - about 200 of them are common and about 20 of them are very common.  Mineral classification is based on anion chemistry.  Major categories of minerals are: elements, sulfides, oxides, halides, carbonates, sulfates, phosphates, and silicates.\n\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>Elements are fundamental substances of matter - matter that is composed of the same types of atoms.  At present, 118 elements are known (four of them are still unnamed).  Of these, 98 occur naturally on Earth (hydrogen to californium).  Most of these occur in rocks & minerals, although some occur in very small, trace amounts.  Only some elements occur in their native elemental state as minerals.\n\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>To find a native element in nature, it must be relatively non-reactive and there must be some concentration process.  Metallic, semimetallic (metalloid), and nonmetallic elements are known in their native state.\n\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>The element carbon principally occurs in its native state as the minerals graphite (C) and diamond (C).  Graphite is the common & far less valuable polymorph of carbon.  Graphite has a metallic luster and a silvery-gray color.  It is very soft (H = 1), has a slick, greasy feel, and readily marks paper.  Graphite does have cleavage, but it is not apparent at the hand specimen scale.  The ability of graphite to mark paper, its softness, and its greasy feel are all a consequence of cleavage sheets easily slipping over each other on a microscopic scale.\n\u003C\u002Fp>\nLocality: unrecorded \u002F undisclosed site in Ceylon \u002F Sri Lanka (attributed to \"Colombo\")","James St. John",2156,2089,{"id":412,"source_url":413,"license_code":414,"credit_html":415,"title":416,"description":417,"author":418,"original_width":419,"original_height":420},10361,"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=11009596","Public domain","Stefan Kühn, via \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=11009596\" rel=\"noopener\">Wikimedia Commons\u003C\u002Fa>","Graphitkugel fuer Hochtemperaturreaktor cropped.JPG","Graphite pebble \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002Ffuel_assembly\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"en:fuel assembly\">fuel assembly\u003C\u002Fa> of a pebble bed reactor","Stefan Kühn",1865,1399,{"id":422,"source_url":423,"license_code":404,"credit_html":424,"title":425,"description":426,"author":408,"original_width":427,"original_height":428},14770,"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=87617361","James St. John, via \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=87617361\" rel=\"noopener\">Wikimedia Commons\u003C\u002Fa>","Graphite-pyroxene-scapolite skarn (Lead Hill Mines, Adirondack Mountains, New York State, USA) 3.jpg","Graphite-pyroxene-scapolite skarn from New York State, USA. (3.4 centimeters across at its foreground widest)\n\u003Cp>This is a polymineralic, coaresely-crystalline textured, contact metamorphic rock - a skarn.  It occurs in the contact zone between a limestone and a pegmatitic granite.  Three minerals are present: 1) dark green-colored augite pyroxene; 2) whitish-gray colored meionite scapolite; and 3) silvery-gray graphite.\n\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>Meionite scapolite is a feldspathoid mineral, Ca4Al6Si6O24CO3 - calcium aluminosilicate-carbonate.  It fluoresces a dull red color under ultraviolet light (UV light; black light).\n\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>Graphite is carbon (C), which is one of two widespread polymorphs of carbon (the other is diamond).  This rock comes from a graphite mine in New York State - graphite occurs there are relatively rich \"veins\" along the contact metamorphic zone between the limestone and the granite.  The graphite content of the rock shown here is too low to be a graphite ore.  Graphite has a silvery-gray color and streak, a metallic luster, a greasy feel, and a hardness of 1 (it is very soft).\n\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>This sample is consistent with the \"pyroxene contact rock with graphite\" of Alling (1917).\n\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>Age: Proterozoic ?\n\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>Locality: unrecorded pit\u002Fworking at Chilson Hill Mines (= Lead Hill Mines), likely from the southern or southeastern sides of Lead Hill (Chilson Hill), north of Chilson Brook, ~2.75 air miles east-southeast of the town of Chilson & ~2.75 air miles west-northwest of the town of Ticonderoga, southeastern Essex County, eastern Adirondack Mountains, northeastern New York State, USA\n\u003C\u002Fp>\n\u003Chr>\n\u003Cp>Lead Hill Mines references:\n\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>Alling (1917) - Lead Hill.  pp. 23-31 in  The Adirondack graphite deposits.  New York State Museum Bulletin 199.\n\u003C\u002Fp>\nLauf & Pasto (1983) - Graphite from the Lead Hill Mine, Ticonderoga, New York.  Mineralogical Record 14: 25-30.",2948,2432,{"id":430,"source_url":431,"license_code":369,"credit_html":432,"title":433,"description":11,"author":11,"original_width":371,"original_height":434},29805,"https:\u002F\u002Fgeocollections.info\u002Ffile\u002F127763","Photo: Unknown author — http:\u002F\u002Fcreativecommons.org\u002Flicenses\u002Fby-sa\u002F4.0\u002F, courtesy of \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fgeocollections.info\u002Ffile\u002F127763\" rel=\"noopener\">University of Tartu, Natural History Museum\u003C\u002Fa> via Europeana","Calcite",944,{"id":436,"source_url":437,"license_code":376,"credit_html":438,"title":439,"description":440,"author":380,"original_width":441,"original_height":442},10356,"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=10429859","Robert M. Lavinsky, via \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=10429859\" rel=\"noopener\">Wikimedia Commons\u003C\u002Fa>","Graphite-Grossular-Strontiumapatite-d06-195a.jpg","\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FGraphite\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"en:Graphite\">Graphite\u003C\u002Fa>, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FGrossular\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"en:Grossular\">Grossular\u003C\u002Fa>, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FApatite\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"en:Apatite\">Apatite\u003C\u002Fa>\n\u003Cdl>\u003Cdd>\u003Cdl>\u003Cdd>Locality: Merelani Hills (Mererani), Lelatema Mts, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FArusha_Region\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"en:Arusha Region\">Arusha Region\u003C\u002Fa>, Tanzania (\u003Ca rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.mindat.org\u002Floc-5699.html\">Locality at mindat.org\u003C\u002Fa>)\u003C\u002Fdd>\n\u003Cdd>Size: thumbnail, 2.5 x 1.9 x 1.7 cm\n\u003Cdl>\u003Cdt>Tsavorite with Graphite and Apatite\u003C\u002Fdt>\u003C\u002Fdl>\u003C\u002Fdd>\n\u003Cdd>This thumbnail of tsavorite garnet not only is gemmy and a lovely emerald green color, but it is also on real matrix of silvery black graphite and a minor blue apatite - a most unusual association. The largest tsavorite crystal is doubly terminated and measures 1.1 cm in length. Overall, it weighs 39.84 carats.\u003C\u002Fdd>\u003C\u002Fdl>\u003C\u002Fdd>\u003C\u002Fdl>",762,800,{"id":444,"source_url":445,"license_code":376,"credit_html":446,"title":447,"description":448,"author":380,"original_width":449,"original_height":450},10357,"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=39385953","Robert M. Lavinsky, via \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=39385953\" rel=\"noopener\">Wikimedia Commons\u003C\u002Fa>","Graphite-and-diamond-with-scale.jpg","\u003Ca href=\"\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FDiamond\" title=\"Diamond\">Diamond\u003C\u002Fa> and \u003Ca href=\"\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FGraphite\" title=\"Graphite\">graphite\u003C\u002Fa> shown side by side, for illustrating \u003Ca href=\"\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FCarbon\" title=\"Carbon\">carbon\u003C\u002Fa>. Scale is based on a rough approximation.\u003Cbr>\n\u003Cdl>\u003Cdd>\u003Cb>Diamond\u003C\u002Fb>\u003Cbr>\u003C\u002Fdd>\n\u003Cdd>Locality: South Africa\u003Cbr>\u003C\u002Fdd>\n\u003Cdd>Size: 1.31 carats: 7 x 6 x 6 mm\u003Cbr>\u003C\u002Fdd>\n\u003Cdd>An octahedral facetable crystal.\u003Cbr>\u003C\u002Fdd>\n\u003Cdd>\u003Cb>Graphite\u003C\u002Fb>\u003Cbr>\u003C\u002Fdd>\n\u003Cdd>Locality: El Cochi, Sonora, Mexico\u003Cbr>\u003C\u002Fdd>\n\u003Cdd>Size: thumbnail, 2.5 x 2.4 x 1.2 cm\u003Cbr>\u003C\u002Fdd>\n\u003Cdd>Crudely crystallized graphite, with a resinous luster.\u003C\u002Fdd>\u003C\u002Fdl>",961,562,{"id":452,"source_url":453,"license_code":369,"credit_html":454,"title":455,"description":456,"author":457,"original_width":458,"original_height":459},10359,"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=129508341","Kritzolina, via \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=129508341\" rel=\"noopener\">Wikimedia Commons\u003C\u002Fa>","Graphite found near Mautern.jpg","\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FGraphite\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"en:Graphite\">Graphite\u003C\u002Fa>, found near Mautern in Styria, Austria","Kritzolina",5472,3648,{"id":461,"source_url":462,"license_code":404,"credit_html":463,"title":464,"description":465,"author":408,"original_width":466,"original_height":467},14768,"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=87617359","James St. John, via \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=87617359\" rel=\"noopener\">Wikimedia Commons\u003C\u002Fa>","Graphite-pyroxene-scapolite skarn (Lead Hill Mines, Adirondack Mountains, New York State, USA) 1.jpg","Graphite-pyroxene-scapolite skarn from New York State, USA. (4.9 centimeters across at its widest)\n\u003Cp>This is a polymineralic, coaresely-crystalline textured, contact metamorphic rock - a skarn.  It occurs in the contact zone between a limestone and a pegmatitic granite.  Three minerals are present: 1) dark green-colored augite pyroxene; 2) whitish-gray colored meionite scapolite; and 3) silvery-gray graphite.\n\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>Meionite scapolite is a feldspathoid mineral, Ca4Al6Si6O24CO3 - calcium aluminosilicate-carbonate.  It fluoresces a dull red color under ultraviolet light (UV light; black light).\n\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>Graphite is carbon (C), which is one of two widespread polymorphs of carbon (the other is diamond).  This rock comes from a graphite mine in New York State - graphite occurs there are relatively rich \"veins\" along the contact metamorphic zone between the limestone and the granite.  The graphite content of the rock shown here is too low to be a graphite ore.  Graphite has a silvery-gray color and streak, a metallic luster, a greasy feel, and a hardness of 1 (it is very soft).\n\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>This sample is consistent with the \"pyroxene contact rock with graphite\" of Alling (1917).\n\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>Age: Proterozoic ?\n\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>Locality: unrecorded pit\u002Fworking at Chilson Hill Mines (= Lead Hill Mines), likely from the southern or southeastern sides of Lead Hill (Chilson Hill), north of Chilson Brook, ~2.75 air miles east-southeast of the town of Chilson & ~2.75 air miles west-northwest of the town of Ticonderoga, southeastern Essex County, eastern Adirondack Mountains, northeastern New York State, USA\n\u003C\u002Fp>\n\u003Chr>\n\u003Cp>Lead Hill Mines references:\n\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>Alling (1917) - Lead Hill.  pp. 23-31 in  The Adirondack graphite deposits.  New York State Museum Bulletin 199.\n\u003C\u002Fp>\nLauf & Pasto (1983) - Graphite from the Lead Hill Mine, Ticonderoga, New York.  Mineralogical Record 14: 25-30.",2546,1899,{"id":469,"source_url":470,"license_code":404,"credit_html":471,"title":472,"description":465,"author":408,"original_width":473,"original_height":474},14769,"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=87617360","James St. John, via \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=87617360\" rel=\"noopener\">Wikimedia Commons\u003C\u002Fa>","Graphite-pyroxene-scapolite skarn (Lead Hill Mines, Adirondack Mountains, New York State, USA) 2.jpg",3036,2164,{"id":476,"source_url":477,"license_code":369,"credit_html":478,"title":7,"description":11,"author":11,"original_width":371,"original_height":479},30422,"https:\u002F\u002Fgeocollections.info\u002Ffile\u002F128484","Photo: Unknown author — http:\u002F\u002Fcreativecommons.org\u002Flicenses\u002Fby-sa\u002F4.0\u002F, courtesy of \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fgeocollections.info\u002Ffile\u002F128484\" rel=\"noopener\">University of Tartu, Natural History Museum\u003C\u002Fa> via Europeana",647,{"id":481,"source_url":482,"license_code":376,"credit_html":483,"title":484,"description":485,"author":380,"original_width":486,"original_height":442},57543,"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=10429864","Robert M. Lavinsky, via \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=10429864\" rel=\"noopener\">Wikimedia Commons\u003C\u002Fa>","Graphite-Grossular-d06-198a.jpg","\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FGraphite\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"en:Graphite\">Graphite\u003C\u002Fa>, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FGrossular\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"en:Grossular\">Grossular\u003C\u002Fa>\n\u003Cdl>\u003Cdd>\u003Cdl>\u003Cdd>Locality: Merelani Hills (Mererani), Lelatema Mts, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FArusha_Region\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"en:Arusha Region\">Arusha Region\u003C\u002Fa>, Tanzania (\u003Ca rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.mindat.org\u002Floc-5699.html\">Locality at mindat.org\u003C\u002Fa>)\u003C\u002Fdd>\n\u003Cdd>Size: thumbnail, 2.3 x 1.7 x 1.6 cm\n\u003Cdl>\u003Cdt>Tsavorite with Graphite\u003C\u002Fdt>\u003C\u002Fdl>\u003C\u002Fdd>\n\u003Cdd>This is a superb, stunningly attractive cluster of gemmy, emerald green grossular var. tsavorite on lustrous, black graphite with minor pyrite. The largest tsavorite measures 1.0 cm in length and the cluster weighs 31.37 carats.\u003C\u002Fdd>\u003C\u002Fdl>\u003C\u002Fdd>\u003C\u002Fdl>",634,{"id":488,"source_url":489,"license_code":376,"credit_html":490,"title":491,"description":492,"author":493,"original_width":494,"original_height":495},63844,"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=21697489","Parent Géry, via \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=21697489\" rel=\"noopener\">Wikimedia Commons\u003C\u002Fa>","Laumontite, tanzanite, graphite 1.JPG","crystals of laumontite, crystals of zoisite var. tanzanite, crystals of graphite : Merelani Hills (Mererani), Lelatema Mts, Arusha Region, Tanzania","Parent Géry",4288,2848,{"id":497,"source_url":498,"license_code":376,"credit_html":499,"title":500,"description":501,"author":493,"original_width":502,"original_height":495},81996,"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=21697491","Parent Géry, via \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=21697491\" rel=\"noopener\">Wikimedia Commons\u003C\u002Fa>","Tanzanite, graphite, laumontite.jpg","crystals of zoisite var. tanzanite, crystals of graphite, crystals of laumontite : Merelani Hills (Mererani), Lelatema Mts, Arusha Region, Tanzania",4000,{"id":504,"source_url":505,"license_code":376,"credit_html":506,"title":507,"description":508,"author":380,"original_width":509,"original_height":510},83783,"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=10124413","Robert M. Lavinsky, via \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002F?curid=10124413\" rel=\"noopener\">Wikimedia Commons\u003C\u002Fa>","Grossular-Graphite-34583.jpg","\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FGrossular\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"en:Grossular\">Grossular\u003C\u002Fa> (Var.: \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FTsavorite\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"en:Tsavorite\">Tsavorite\u003C\u002Fa>), \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FGraphite\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"en:Graphite\">Graphite\u003C\u002Fa>\n\u003Cdl>\u003Cdd>\u003Cdl>\u003Cdd>Locality: Merelani Hills (Mererani), Lelatema Mts, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FArusha_Region\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"en:Arusha Region\">Arusha Region\u003C\u002Fa>, Tanzania (\u003Ca rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.mindat.org\u002Floc-5699.html\">Locality at mindat.org\u003C\u002Fa>)\u003C\u002Fdd>\n\u003Cdd>A gorgeous specimen with among the deepest green color I have ever seen in tsavorite. The piece features a crystal measuring almost 1 cm, perched atop contrasting graphite matrix. There is also rich tsavorite at the bottom of the piece, for added color bonus. The major crystal is slightly contacted on the back side and missing only one minor face , also on the back. It really displays well and is a piece with more visual impact than its size might indicate. the association on matrix is VERY rare! 2.2 x 2.1 x 1.4 cm\u003C\u002Fdd>\u003C\u002Fdl>\u003C\u002Fdd>\u003C\u002Fdl>",600,531,[512,517,522,527,532],{"id":513,"url":514,"label":515,"formula":14,"spacegroup":516,"year":261},5695,"\u002Fcif\u002F5695.cif","Fayos 1999 · C (1)","P 63 m c",{"id":518,"url":519,"label":520,"formula":14,"spacegroup":521,"year":261},5696,"\u002Fcif\u002F5696.cif","Fayos 1999 · C (2)","C m m a",{"id":523,"url":524,"label":525,"formula":14,"spacegroup":526,"year":261},5697,"\u002Fcif\u002F5697.cif","Fayos 1999 · C (3)","C m m m",{"id":528,"url":529,"label":530,"formula":14,"spacegroup":531,"year":261},5698,"\u002Fcif\u002F5698.cif","Fayos 1999 · C (4)","P c c a",{"id":533,"url":534,"label":535,"formula":14,"spacegroup":536,"year":261},5699,"\u002Fcif\u002F5699.cif","Fayos 1999 · C (5)","P b a n",[538,539,540,541,542,543,544,545,546,547,548,549,550],"Black Lead","Crayon","Flinzgraphit","Graphita","Graphitum","Melangraphit","Melangraphita","Melangraphite","Mica des Peintres","Mica Pictoria","Plombagine","Pombaggine","Reissblei",[552,556,560,564,568,572,576,580,583,587,591,595,599,602,606,610,613,617,620,624,627,631,635,639,642,646,649,652,656,660,664,667,671,675,680,683,686,689,693,696,704,707,711,715,721,725,729,732,736,740,743,747,751,755,758,762,766,770,773,777,781,784,788,792,796,800,804,807,810,814,817,821,824,828,831,835,838,841,844,847,850,853,857,860,863,867,870,873,877,881,885,888,893,898,901,904,907,910,913,916,920,923,926,930,933,936,939,942,945,948,951,954,957],{"lang":553,"names":554},"af",[555],"grafiet",{"lang":557,"names":558},"ar",[559],"غرافيت",{"lang":561,"names":562},"ast",[563],"grafitu",{"lang":565,"names":566},"az",[567],"qrafit",{"lang":569,"names":570},"azb",[571],"قرافیت",{"lang":573,"names":574},"ba",[575],"Графит",{"lang":577,"names":578},"be",[579],"графіт",{"lang":581,"names":582},"be-tarask",[579],{"lang":584,"names":585},"be-x-old",[586],"Графіт",{"lang":588,"names":589},"bg",[590],"графит",{"lang":592,"names":593},"bn",[594],"গ্রাফাইট",{"lang":596,"names":597},"bs",[598],"grafit",{"lang":600,"names":601},"ca",[598],{"lang":603,"names":604},"ckb",[605],"گرافیت",{"lang":607,"names":608},"cs",[598,609],"tuha",{"lang":611,"names":612},"cv",[590],{"lang":614,"names":615},"cy",[616],"graffit",{"lang":618,"names":619},"da",[598],{"lang":621,"names":622},"de",[623],"Graphit",{"lang":625,"names":626},"de-ch",[623],{"lang":628,"names":629},"din",[630],"Jɔɔrɔ",{"lang":632,"names":633},"el",[634],"γραφίτης",{"lang":636,"names":637},"eo",[638],"grafito",{"lang":640,"names":641},"es",[638],{"lang":643,"names":644},"et",[645],"grafiit",{"lang":647,"names":648},"eu",[638],{"lang":650,"names":651},"fa",[605],{"lang":653,"names":654},"fi",[655],"grafiitti",{"lang":657,"names":658},"fr",[659],"graphite",{"lang":661,"names":662},"ga",[663],"graifít",{"lang":665,"names":666},"gl",[638],{"lang":668,"names":669},"gu",[670],"ગ્રેફાઇટ",{"lang":672,"names":673},"he",[674],"גרפיט",{"lang":676,"names":677},"hi",[678,679],"ग्रेफाइट","ग्रेफाईट",{"lang":681,"names":682},"hr",[598],{"lang":684,"names":685},"hsb",[598],{"lang":687,"names":688},"hu",[598],{"lang":690,"names":691},"hy",[692],"Գրաֆիտ",{"lang":694,"names":695},"id",[598],{"lang":697,"names":698},"ig",[659,699,700,701,702,703],"graphite-2H","graphite-3R","ịnweta 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чулуу",{"lang":782,"names":783},"ms",[598],{"lang":785,"names":786},"my",[787],"ဂရက်ဖိုက်",{"lang":789,"names":790},"nan",[791],"Chio̍h-ba̍k",{"lang":793,"names":794},"nb",[795],"grafitt",{"lang":797,"names":798},"nds",[799],"Grafit",{"lang":801,"names":802},"ne",[803,679],"ग्राफाइट",{"lang":805,"names":806},"nl",[555],{"lang":808,"names":809},"nn",[795],{"lang":811,"names":812},"no",[813],"Grafitt",{"lang":815,"names":816},"oc",[799,659],{"lang":818,"names":819},"om",[820],"Irsaasoo",{"lang":822,"names":823},"os",[590],{"lang":825,"names":826},"pa",[827],"ਗਰੇਫ਼ਾਈਟ",{"lang":829,"names":830},"pl",[598],{"lang":832,"names":833},"pnb",[834],"گریفائیٹ",{"lang":836,"names":837},"pt",[714],{"lang":839,"names":840},"pt-br",[714],{"lang":842,"names":843},"ro",[598],{"lang":845,"names":846},"ru",[590],{"lang":848,"names":849},"sco",[659],{"lang":851,"names":852},"sh",[598],{"lang":854,"names":855},"si",[856],"මිනිරන්",{"lang":858,"names":859},"sk",[598],{"lang":861,"names":862},"sl",[598],{"lang":864,"names":865},"sq",[866],"grafiti",{"lang":868,"names":869},"sr",[590],{"lang":871,"names":872},"sv",[598],{"lang":874,"names":875},"sw",[876],"Grafati",{"lang":878,"names":879},"ta",[880],"கடுங்கரி",{"lang":882,"names":883},"te",[884],"గ్రాఫైట్",{"lang":886,"names":887},"tg",[575],{"lang":889,"names":890},"th",[891,892],"กราไฟต์","แกรไฟต์",{"lang":894,"names":895},"tok",[896,897],"kiwen pi ilo sitelen","kiwen sitelen",{"lang":899,"names":900},"tr",[598],{"lang":902,"names":903},"tt",[590],{"lang":905,"names":906},"tyv",[590],{"lang":908,"names":909},"uk",[579],{"lang":911,"names":912},"ur",[834],{"lang":914,"names":915},"uz",[598],{"lang":917,"names":918},"vi",[919],"than chì",{"lang":921,"names":922},"wuu",[719],{"lang":924,"names":925},"yue",[719],{"lang":927,"names":928},"zh",[719,929],"黑铅",{"lang":931,"names":932},"zh-cn",[719],{"lang":934,"names":935},"zh-hans",[719],{"lang":937,"names":938},"zh-hant",[719],{"lang":940,"names":941},"zh-hk",[719],{"lang":943,"names":944},"zh-min-nan",[791],{"lang":946,"names":947},"zh-mo",[719],{"lang":949,"names":950},"zh-my",[719],{"lang":952,"names":953},"zh-sg",[719],{"lang":955,"names":956},"zh-tw",[719],{"lang":958,"names":959},"zh-yue",[719],"Q5309",{"history":962,"applications":966},{"markdown":963,"model_version":964,"prompt_version":965,"reviewed_at":11},"The name **graphite** comes from the Greek *graphein* — to write — because the soft black mineral leaves a mark on almost anything it touches[1]. That single property runs through its whole human story, from Neolithic potters to the pencil in a desk drawer.\n\nThe oldest known use is decorative. In the 4th millennium BCE, during the Neolithic Age in southeastern Europe, the Marița culture ground graphite into a ceramic paint and used it to decorate pottery[2].\n\n### A strategic English mine\n\nThe mineral's strangest chapter belongs to one valley in England. Sometime before 1565, an enormous deposit of pure graphite was found near the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale, Cumbria — the only large source of solid, high-purity graphite ever discovered[3].\n\nIt had a military use. During the reign of Elizabeth I, Borrowdale graphite lined the molds used to cast cannonballs, a refractory — heat-resistant — coating that gave rounder, smoother balls able to fly farther[4]. Because that mattered to the navy, the Crown controlled the mine and its output tightly[5].\n\nThe same deposit started an industry. From the 16th century, pencils were made with leads cut from English natural graphite[6].\n\n### Untangling the name\n\nFor centuries the mineral was confused with others that looked like it. It was called **black lead** or **plumbago**, both names borrowed from the lead ores it resembled, particularly galena — a heavy, metallic lead sulfide[7]. The confusion was scholarly as well as popular. Magnus von Bromell applied the name *plumbago* to it in 1739, though in a different sense from older authorities such as Agricola and Conrad Gesner[8]. The Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele showed in 1781 that the loosely-used name *molybdaena* in fact covered two minerals: molybdenite and graphite[9]. The German mineralogist Abraham Gottlob Werner finally cut the tangle, coining the name *graphite* — writing stone — in 1789[1].\n\nThe pencil supply chain shifted not long after. In 1795 the French inventor Nicolas-Jacques Conté worked out how to make pencil leads from a mix of powdered graphite and clay — the method still used today[10].","claude-opus-4-8","1.7.0",{"markdown":967,"model_version":964,"prompt_version":965,"reviewed_at":11},"Graphite is the rare mineral that behaves like both a metal and a non-metal. It conducts heat and electricity like a metal, yet it is chemically inert, withstands high temperatures, and is slippery to the touch — a combination that suits it to a wide spread of industrial jobs[1].\n\nIts single largest industrial role is in steelmaking. **Graphite electrodes** carry the electric current that melts scrap iron and steel inside electric-arc furnaces, the type that produces the vast majority of the world's steel[2]. The same heat resistance makes graphite a **refractory** — a material that holds up under extreme heat. Carbon-magnesite bricks line steel converters and electric-arc furnaces, and graphite crucibles hold molten metal[3].\n\nIn a foundry — a workshop that casts metal — graphite also does quieter work. A thin water-based paint of fine graphite, brushed inside a mold and dried, leaves a coat that helps the finished casting separate cleanly from the mold[4].\n\nIts slipperiness makes it a lubricant where oil would fail. Graphite lubricants are specialty items for very high or very low temperatures, used as a forging-die lubricant, an antiseize agent, a gear lubricant for mining machinery, and to free stuck locks[5]. In electric motors, graphite **brushes** are the sliding contacts that pass current to the spinning part[6].\n\nPencils, the mineral's oldest manufactured product, remain a small but steady market. Around 7% of the 1.1 million tonnes of graphite produced in 2011 went into making them[7].\n\nThe fastest-growing demand comes from energy storage. Graphite is the main anode material in lithium-ion batteries — the negative electrode that stores the charge[8]. The anode in nearly every electric-vehicle battery is graphite; a single fully electric Nissan Leaf battery holds close to 40 kg of it[9].\n\nNot all of it is mined. **Synthetic graphite** is made by heating hydrocarbon materials above 2,100 °C through the Acheson process[10]. It reaches purities above 99.9% carbon, though at lower density and conductivity than the natural mineral[10]. The very pure synthetic grades serve as a neutron moderator inside nuclear reactors, slowing the neutrons that sustain a chain reaction[11].\n\nSupply of natural graphite is highly concentrated. China produced an estimated 78% of the world's output in 2024[12]."]